This exhibition showcases material from some collections in the Sudan Archive to highlight their potential importance to researchers and to give a brief idea of the breadth of material held in the Archive.
In order to demonstrate the scope and diversity of the collections the exhibition is divided into five themes covering various aspects of the fascinating history of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan: Administration of the Sudan, Personal lives of the British, Sudan at war, Sudanese under Anglo-Egyptian rule, and Independent Sudan.
This exhibition was created as part of the Wood Bequest Project, funded through a generous bequest from Mrs Kathleen Wood, a former official of the Sudan Education Department. This gift enabled the University to appoint two archivists for two years to tackle the growing backlog of uncatalogued material in the Sudan Archive. The online catalogues produced by these project archivists opened up access to hidden collections of international importance for the benefit of researchers worldwide.
Image: Jack Mavrogordato, Deputy Legal Secretary and Advocate General (P.P. Howell, SAD.390/4/2)
Christian missionary activity had the potential to be an explosive issue in the Anglo-Egyptian-Sudan. In order to avoid controversy in the predominately Muslim northern provinces, the Sudan Government banned missionaries from operating there. Instead, the missionaries concentrated on Southern Sudan but even here sectarian conflict was evident, most notably between Protestant and Catholic missionaries over rights to minister in certain areas. This colour-coded map illustrates the agreed demarcation of mission spheres for the respective missionary denominations in the southern provinces.
Miller was, at this time, Assistant District Commissioner of Port Sudan. Working under the system of 'Indirect Rule' the role of District Commissioners and Assistant District Commissioners was to advise and oversee the traditional Sudanese tribal authorities. Owing to the relative isolation of many of their postings, DCs and ADCs had to use their initiative and the scope of their duties varied widely.
As the Sudan was a sovereign state and not a colony, the authority of the Governor-General was greater than that of any colonial governor in the British Empire. By the 1930s the only check on his power came from the Foreign Office which, by and large, took little interest in the Sudan. Symes himself served for 6 years from 1934-1940 and his rule, characterised by bold plans for reform, marked the beginning of a shift towards Sudanese nationalism and later independence. P.P. Howell, the creator of the collection from which this photograph comes from, is seated to the right of Symes, in his role as Aide-de-Camp.
The administration by provincial Governors of the myriad of tribes under their jurisdiction was not an altogether easy task, particularly as administrative control needed to be balanced against the rights of tribes to manage their own affairs. The question of the demarcation of tribal boundaries could, on occasion, cause disagreements between tribes, as this memorandum illustrates.
Cotton was, for a long time, the Sudan's main export - until surpassed by oil in the 1990s. Under Anglo-Egyptian rule much was done to maximise production of cotton and other crops and to overcome the difficulties posed by the Sudan's swamplands (sudd). The Gezira irrigation scheme, designed to increase the agricultural potential of the plains between the White and Blue Niles just south of Khartoum, was the first and most ambitious project undertaken by the government. Begun in 1913 (though hindered until the end of the war and the completion of the Sennar Dam in 1926) the Gezira scheme proved an enormous financial success and was widely praised as a model irrigation scheme. With further extensions it now covers an area of 2.5 million acres.
Building the infrastructure of the Sudan was vital to ensure the successful administration of the country. The railways played an essential role in this regard, not least by improving communications between central government and the provinces. As the home of the Sudan Railways department, Atbara became a very important centre for the management of railway operations and the transport network in general.
Judicial courts played an important role as instruments of power in the towns and cities of Northern Sudan. At the head of the Legal Department was the Legal Secretary, one of the most powerful positions in the Sudan Government. However, the day-to-day administration of justice was carried out by the Civil Courts and the Mohammedan Law Courts. This table shows the relative number of civil cases brought before the Khartoum and Omdurman Civil Courts between 1915 and 1950.
Prisoners were widely used by the British as free labour and were even employed in the households of officials.
Image: Table tennis game in progress (P.P. Howell, SAD.59/6)
The level of comfort provided to Sudan Political Service officials was considerable, particularly in the larger towns and cities. As the vast majority of British officials were Oxford or Cambridge educated and from country families, more often than not the Sudan proved a home from home as officials found themselves mingling with colleagues from largely similar backgrounds.
British clubs and societies in the Sudan essentially mirrored the class distinctions and group identities of the homeland. Clubs were established based on rank, and common interest groups were set up for officials with shared backgrounds and pursuits, as is evident in the celebration of 'Scottishness' in this dinner menu.
Sport was encouraged amongst British officials, in support of Lord Cromer's vision of a service of 'active young men, endowed with good health, high character and fair abilities...'.Tennis was the game of choice for many, whilst team sports such as cricket and polo were popular in areas with a higher concentration of British residents. Where the equipment or facilities were not available, improvisation was often the solution, as seen in this photograph.
A number of amateur music and theatre groups staged regular performances for the benefit of their fellow officials. In this example, the Khartoum Repertory Company is advertising a performance of 'Goodness, how sad!', which had first appeared as a film in 1938.
Social functions provided a means for officials to meet each other in an informal setting. One of the more popular events in the social calendar was the annual children's party organised by Bishop Gwynne. This was a family event, when children dressed up in fancy-dress costume.
Whilst many chose to return home for leave, many unmarried officials or those whose families had accompanied them to the Sudan often used the generous leave offered by the Sudan Government to explore neighbouring countries. As demonstrated by this diary entry, sightseeing was often mixed with business.
Certain 'leisure' activities, such as drinking alcohol, were not universally popular amongst all officials. In this diary extract the Sudan Railways official, R.L. Hill (who later became the founder of the Sudan Archive) complains of the profligacy of those British officials who chose to spend a 'tithe of their pay on drinks'.
Image: Troops awaiting battle at Omdurman (F.R. Wingate, A27/1-232)
The death of the Governor-General of the Sudan, General Charles Gordon, at the hands of Mahdist forces in 1885, led to the evacuation of Khartoum and the beginning of the 14-year period of Mahdist rule. Contemporary accounts at the time criticised the British Government for the delay in sending reinforcements which arrived two days late. This diary entry of F.R. Wingate, aide-de-camp to the SIrdar, Sir Evelyn Wood (and later Governor-General of the Sudan) is typical of the popular perception of the events surrounding Gordon's death.
As with any war of conquest, the overcoming of logistical obstacles was as important as the winning of battles. The Nile cataracts between Toski and Khartoum proved a particular difficulty to the joint British and Egyptian force as boats, essential to the campaign, were unable to sail unaided any further south. The large steam vessels instead had to be hauled over the cataracts by teams of men numbering in their thousands. Archibald Hunter, then a Major-General and Kitchener's right hand man, oversaw the hauling of the boats over the second cataract near Wadi Halfa.
This photograph is taken from the collection of W.R.G. Wollen of the Royal Engineers and shows a steamer being hauled over the Second Cataract of the Nile in preperation for the Battle of Omdurman
The battle of Omdurman brought about the end of the Khalifa and his army. As a direct result of superior organisation and weapons technology the British suffered relatively few losses throughout the whole of the Nile Campaign. Despite this, Hunter still expresses his fears that the Battle of Omdurman might have been a disaster had it not been for luck.
The flag is that of a gunboat involved in the battle of Omdurman, probably the Melik or Sobat.
Although the Sudan played no direct part in the First World War, its government found itself distracted with internal conflicts. The Darfur Campaign saw the Sudan Government suppress an uprising in the old independent Fur sultanate. At the outbreak of the First World War, 'Ali Dinar, Sultan of Darfur, had allied himself with the Ottoman-Turks against the Anglo-French. This prompted the Sudan government to launch an expedition which defeated the Fur army in May 1916. This proclamation is evidence of the propaganda campaign to persuade the people of Darfur to reject the Sultan. It is also an example of the increasing use of aeroplanes to distribute propaganda over a wide area.
The Sudan Defence Force (SDF), consisting of Sudanese troops under British officers, was established in the aftermath of the 1924 Mutiny and the assassination of the Governor-General, Sir Lee Stack. The involvement of the SDF in the Second World War led to the creation of an auxiliary organisation with its own distinctive uniform, including this headdress badge.
The Sudan's role in the Second World War was greater than in the First World War. Fascist Italy's declaration of war against the Allies led to the involvement of the Sudan Defence Force in the East African Campaign, during which the Italians briefly occupied Kassala and other minor strongholds in Eastern Sudan. The SDF later played an active role in the Western Desert Campaign, supplying Allied troops including the Free French.
The impact of war can also be observed on the capital itself, where bombing raids were not uncommon. However, the letter here illustrates that these raids only succeeded in causing minor damage, so much so that the letter-writer, G.C. Wood, actually slept through the whole raid!
Image: Hadendoa cricket match (P.P. Howell, SAD.58/9)
With the notable exception of Sudanese Arabic, which was the dominant language of Northern Sudan, it is rare to find written examples of other Sudanese languages in the papers of British officials. This is particularly the case for the tribes of the Southern Sudan, for whom no written tradition existed and where knowledge and communication were usually transmitted orally. Amongst the myriad of dialects and local languages spoken in the Southern Sudan, Bangala was the lingua franca for many. It was adopted by tribes in a number of regions, particularly Equatoria, and also utilised by Christian missionaries to preach the Gospel to Sudanese tribes.
An important feature of tribal life in both Northern and Southern Sudan was tribal gatherings. Tribal dances were a particularly significant aspect of these celebrations, in which costume played an important function in defining role and identity.
Traditional celebrations among tribes were often huge events lasting a number of days. Here the Shilluk warriors celebrate the installation of the new reth (king) by performing a traditional tribal dance. The entire celebration lasted five days and included speeches, dances and re-enactments of historic battles.
The production of colonial picture postcards for the Western market was a particularly popular commercial activity in the early 20th century. This picture postcard was produced by the Cairo-based organisation, Liechtenstein & Harari, one of over 120 companies who were active in providing this service for the Sudan.
Working in virtual isolation, the District Commissioner often became genuinely devoted to the tribes under his jurisdiction and acquired a large body of knowledge about their customs and the minutiae of Sudanese tribal life in general. Given the heavy reliance on oral communication in transmitting knowledge amongst tribal members and the dispersal and displacement of tribes in the post-colonial environment, much of this information probably would not have survived had it not been for the recordkeeping of the District Commissioners during the Condominium era.
As a consequence of missionary activity in Southern Sudan, many Sudanese developed a strong attachment to the Christian religion which was to have important consequences for their relationship with the predominantly Arab North in the post-independence period. The photograph exemplifies the popularity of, and devotion to, Christianity, with crowds of Sudanese gathered around Pastor Andarea Apaya.
King's Day was celebrated yearly in the Sudan to mark the anniversary of the visit of King George V to Port Sudan in January 1912 - the first visit by a reigning monarch to the Sudan. King's Day was popular amongst British and Sudanese alike. It was usually marked by large gatherings involving sports events participated in by local Sudanese. It also gave the Sudanese the chance to demonstrate their skills in their own traditional sports before a large audience. In the Nuba mountains these included stick fighting and wrestling.
Though the government took various approaches to discourage the spread of Islam into Southern Sudan, in the North Muslim festivals, such as Ramadan, flourished under Anglo-Egyptian rule. Many British officials developed an interest in Muslim ways - even to the point where some of them chose to fast during Ramadan.
Image: House of Representatives (G.H. Martin, SAD.26/8)
The Anglo-Egyptian Agreement of 1953 secured independence for the Sudan, and so began the process of self-determination and self-government. However, the process was not smooth, as many political interests were at stake. Immediately following the agreement, the country held its first parliamentary elections - which saw a landslide for the pro-Egyptian, National Unionist Party. The opening of the new national Parliament in March 1954 was halted by violent protests carried out by a huge gathering of Ansar acting on behalf of the opposition, anti-Egyptian, Umma Party. Ten policemen were killed in the riots including the British Commandant, Hugh McGuigan.
The Queen's visit was evidence of an enduring connection between the British and Sudanese people that continued well after independence. It proved to be a hugely popular visit, in spite of the political tensions of the time.
The Sudan People's Liberation Movement (SPLM) was the political wing of the Sudan People's Liberation Army which fought against the government in the Second Sudanese Civil War. From its inception in 1983, the SPLM employed a range of methods to promote its cause, most notably disseminating propaganda in the form of press releases, statements, and reports. This SPLM Update newsletter includes an article accusing the Sudan Government of accepting American aid.
John Garang de Mabior, leader of the SPLM/A, visited London in 1989 in order to garner support for his cause. Whilst opposed to the violent actions of the Sudanese government, Garang also had to account for atrocities committed by the SPLA such as the shooting down of civilian airliners and the murder of aid workers. A charismatic leader who many believed might contribute to the eventual peace effort in the Sudan, Garang died in a helicopter crash in 2005.
The practice of female circumcision was originally outlawed in 1946 by the Sudan Government.However, following independence, its prevalence increased dramatically and it became a major human rights issue. The conference referred to in this poster was organised by the former British teacher, L.P. Sanderson, who played a leading role in the abolition campaign.
During the 1990s, the extent of human rights abuses in Southern Sudan remained largely hidden from view. Indeed, the situation in the Sudan failed to capture the attention of the world's media in the way that the troubles of Yugoslavia and Somalia did. Appeals to prominent individuals to raise awareness of the situation became a favourite tactic adopted by pressure groups both within the Sudan and the diaspora.
Our perceptions of post-independence Sudan are usually dictated by the media concentration on civil war, famine and genocide. However, during the 1980s, the Sudanese government was keen to project a more positive image of the Sudan and promote the country as a possible tourist destination, as is evident by these posters.
